Problem
WordNet 2.1 defines three senses of the noun "problem":
For Library and Information Science (LIS) problems are underlying most of the information needs that information systems and services are meant to help fulfilling. It is important to realize, however, that problems are mostly not given a priori. Research problems, for example, cannot normally be formulated before the literature in the domain is known. Research problems are supposed to fill a gab in the existing knowledge, and that gab cannot be identified without consulting the literature. (On a general level, of course, one may formulate unsolved problems such as how to cure cancer, but a strategy to work with such a problem presupposes a knowledge of previous research). There is thus an interaction between formulating problems and find information that may help solving the problem. For a valuable introduction to the nature of different kinds of research problems see Allwood & Bärmark (1999).
The American philosopher John Dewey formulated 1916 a theory which stated that thinking and acting are not just individual and private affairs but are functions of the social life. Man's consciousness is social by nature. For Dewey thinking and acting are two sides of the same matter. When the acting human being encounters a problem, which demands a break of the action, a "thoughtful action" develops. It consists of five stages. These five stages represent the general features of a reflective experience: "
perplexity, confusion, doubt, due to the fact that one is implicated in an incomplete situation whose full character is not yet determined;
a conjectural anticipation -- a tentative interpretation of the given elements, attributing to them a tendency to effect certain consequences;
a careful survey (examination, inspection, exploration, analysis ) of all attainable consideration which will define and clarify the problem in hand;
a consequent elaboration of the tentative hypothesis to make it more precise and more consistent, because squaring with a wider range of facts;
taking one stand upon the projected hypothesis as a plan of action which is applied to the existing state of affairs: doing something overtly to bring about the anticipated result, and thereby testing the hypothesis.
It is the extent and accuracy of steps three and four which mark off a distinctive reflective experience from one on the trial and error plane. They make thinking itself into an experience. Nevertheless, we never get wholly beyond the trial and error situation. " (Dewey, 1916, chapter 11).
Dewey's understanding of the term "idea" is of special
interest. In classical epistemology are ideas and reality separated. In the
pragmatic theory, however, the idea is an integrated part of the action. The
integration of idea and action is accomplished by making the idea a "plan of
action" for the execution of the action.
This view is related to the view that the Russian psychologist Vygotsky
developed regarding language, thinking and consciousness, which founded the
Cultural-historical tradition in psychology, cf., Leontjev, 1983. See also
Activity-theory).
The usual procedure in research is to start with a problem, and then search information and try to solve the problem. However, as demonstrated by Allwood & Bärmark (1999) may problems play very different roles in research processes. Some kinds of research, in particular historical research may start with some documents or information sources, which are then related to other sources of information. The Royal Library in Copenhagen publishes "Fund og forskning i Det kgl. Biblioteks samlinger" which represent such an approach.
It is well known that a good formulated question makes half of the answer. Problemanalysis and problem-formulation are important conditions for problem solving. It is also the problem-analysis and the problem recognition that determine how a solution is anticipated and what information and which objects may contribute to problem solving. A discrepancy in a person's ideas of what to search for may make the positive completion of the search difficult or impossible, and even familiar objects are easy overlooked (cf., Titchner, 1924) Kingsley, 1932 & 1934). In the philosophy of science are this described by Kuhn (1970). Researchers working in different "paradigms" do not recognize the same information as relevant.
to be edited:
Brugere kan have en mere eller mindre subjektiv eller adekvat bevidsthed om
problemets objektive forhold og løsningsmuligheder. En patient kan f.eks. have
en helt misvisende opfattelse af sin egen sygdom og en effektiv behandling, og
dermed måske også af sit informationsbehov. Man har da også ofte i den
informationsvidenskabelige litteratur skelnet mellem de "information wants",
som brugerne udtrykker, og de "needs", som de måske ikke selv kan erkende og
formulere. Især Wersig (1979) har peget på behovet for at opfatte den
problematiske situation som et grundbegreb i informationsvidenskaben. Den måde,
hvorpå mennesker løser problemer, studeres bl.a. indenfor problemløsningens
psykologi.
Literature:
Allwood, C. M. & Bärmark, J. (1999). The role of research problems in the process of research. Social Epistemology, 13(1), 59-83.
Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and Education. New York: MacMillan. Available at: http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/publications/Projects/digitexts/dewey/d_e/chapter11.html
Hernon, P. & Metoyerduran, C. (1993). Problem statements: An explorative study of their function, significance, and form. Library & Information Science Research, 15(1), 71-92.
Higgins, J. P. T. & Green, S. (Eds.). Formulating the problem. Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions 4.2.5 [updated May 2005]; Section 4. http://www.cochrane.org/resources/handbook/hbook.htm
Kingsley, H. L. (1932). An experimental study of "search".
American Journal
of Psychology, 44, 314-318.
Kingsley, H. L. (1934). The Influence of instruction and context upon perceptive search. American Journal of Psychology, 46, 437-442.
Kuhn, T. S. (1970). Structure of Scientific Revolutions,
2nd ed. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Leontjev, A.(1983). Virksomhed, bevidsthed, personlighed. Moskva: Sputnik.
Metoyerduran, C. & Hernon, P. (1994). Problem statements in research proposals
and published research: A case study of researchers' viewpoints. Library &
Information Science Research, 16(2), 105-118.
Seidel, R. (1976). Denken. Psychologische Analyse der Entstehung und Lösung von
Problemen. Frankfurt & New York: Campus Verlag.
Stansbury, M. C. (2002). Problem statements in seven LIS journals: An application of the Hernon/Metoyer-Duran attributes. Library & Information Science Research, 24(2), 157-168.
Titchner, E. R. (1924). The overlooking of familiar objects.
American Journal of
Psychology, 35, 304-305.
Wersig, G. (1979). The Problematic Situation as a Basic Concept of Information
Science in the Framework of the Social Sciences: A Reply to Belkin. IN:
International Federation for Documentation: Theoretical Problems of
Informatics: New Trends in Informatics and its Terminology, 48-57. FID 568.
Moscow: VINITI.
WordNet 2.1 http://wordnet.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=problem
See also: Information needs;
Query_Question
Birger Hjørland
Last edited: 28-07-2006